Essay 5b

Old and New  

Question: Could the Art of the Gothic period be considered "new" and if so, could geography have been a factor and, what else could have contributed to it? 

Part One

Summary: In answering this question, I realized not every style that is "new" is completely so. Most ideas are influenced by preceding ideas, or ideas of other cultures, which causes art and architecture from various locations and time periods to have similar characteristics. 

Reason: I believe the reason this question was asked was to cause us students to look at art and architecture from different periods and locations and attempt to figure out what aspects may be new, and what may not necessarily be new.

Purpose: The purpose of this question was to show how just because an art style may appear new, does not mean that it truly is. Also, another purpose was to cause me to be able to view art styles and be able to see the characteristics that came from earlier styles. 

Direction: In answering this question, I read the chapter on the Gothic period in Art History and also continuously referred to earlier chapters in order to compare items from the Gothic period to those of previous periods. I have always had an interest in the Gothic period and have known that the style is not completely new, but I have always thought of it as unique; the research for this question did not change my views on the topic. 

Impressions: I did not have any moments in answering this question that particularly stood out to me. However, this is probably due to an earlier essay that I wrote discussing the similarities and differences of the Gothic period and the Egyptian Armana Period, which helped in my writing of this period because I had an idea of what aspects of the Gothic period were not exactly new.

Part Two

Answer: By the time of the Gothic period, after extensive migration and trade had taken place throughout Europe, and ideas and custom had been continuously exchanged, could any art forms truly be considered "new"? Much of the artwork and architecture of the Gothic period is influenced by earlier periods, which is apparent. But still, there are many aspects, especially in architecture, that give the Gothic period a certain uniqueness when compared to earlier art styles.

Originating in the 12th century in Paris, the styles of the Gothic period have their primary roots in the preceding Romanesque period. Much of the architecture of the Romanesque period, plainly stated in the name, had been influenced by Roman architecture, and can be considered as a revival of Roman styles. Such influences included the use of rounded arches, semi-circular portions of buildings, and a return to the use of sculpture. All of these aspects eventually influenced the architecture of the Gothic period. However, by the Gothic period, builders began modifying the Romanesque styles and creating newer, unique styles, especially within architecture, which will be my main focus of this essay. 

Abbey Church of Saint-Denis. c. 1140-1144.

The Abbey Church of Saint-Denis is considered to be the first Gothic building. Constructed between the 1130s and 1140s, under the supervision of Abbot Suger, the cathedral features stained glass windows, pointed arches, and pointed barrel vaults; all of which become key characteristics of Gothic architecture. Pointed barrel vaults and arches are by no means new to the Gothic period. The use of such architectural features began to appear in Europe during the Romanesque period, but became incredibly popular during the Gothic period, which is due to a desire to build on a larger scale and pointed arches and vaults are more structurally sound than round arches. As stated in Art History: "Pointed arches are structurally more stable than round ones, directing more weight down into the floor instead of outward to the walls. Consequently, they can span greater distances at greater heights without collapsing" (p. 463).

Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris.

Two forms of architecture that can be considered new in the Gothic period are the flying buttresses and stained glass windows. The flying buttress is "a gracefully arched, skeletal exterior support, [which] counters the lateral thrust of the nave vault and transfers its weight outward, over the side aisles, where it is resolved into and supported by a vertical external buttress, rising from the ground" (Art History, p. 496). The first use of flying buttresses appeared in Paris during the construction of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame and were used to increase window size and support the vault, which rose 115 feet high. (Art History. p. 496). Such structures gave the outer portions of cathedrals an almost web-like appearance, with the main area of the building at the center; as if the cathedral were the spider, and the flying buttresses her web.

Good Samaritan Window. Stained & painted glass. c. 1200-1210

The use of stained glass windows became a prominent key feature in Gothic architecture. The first appearance of such windows was in the Abbey church of Saint-Denis. In creating the design for the Abbey, Abbot Suger had been inspired by "a follower of St. Paul named Dionysius...who considered radiant light a physical manifestation of God" (Art History. p. 494). In trying to give the Abbey light that would be as if a manifestation of God, Suger developed the idea of using stained glass windows as part of the abbey walls to allow radiant, colorful light to penetrate the inside of the Abbey. Such windows did not contain colored glass randomly placed, but were comprised of biblical stories. The Good Samaritan Window, located in the Chartres Cathedral is a perfect example of the forms of narrative that appeared on stained glass windows. Starting from the top of the window, the stories of the Creation, the fall of Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden, and the Good Samaritan. While the use of stained glass in windows is new to the Gothic period, the displaying of narratives is not. Such narratives appear in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, in carvings and statuary of the Greeks and Romans, and also in the frescoes and mosaics that were common in Byzantine and other early Christian churches.

Pulpit Baptistery. Marble. c. 1260.

Also making a comeback in Gothic architecture is the use of carvings and statues inside and outside the cathedrals. Such carvings and statues have characteristics which give away that they are from the Gothic period, but the majority of the characteristics contain primarily Greek and Roman influences. The marble pulpit of the Pisa Baptistery, sculpted by Nicola Pisano, is an incredible example of the use of Gothic and Classical architecture and sculpture. The pulpit contains "columns topped with leafy Corinthian capitals [which] support standing figures and Gothic trefoil arches" (Art History. p. 522). While the trefoil arches give the pulpit its Gothic distinction, every other feature appears to be more Roman than anything else. The figures in the panels along the top of the pulpit are reminiscent of scenes that appeared on Roman sarcophagi reliefs; "the sculptural treatment of the deeply cut, full-bodied forms is certainly Classical in inspiration, as are the heavy, placid faces" (Art History. p. 524).

In conclusion, if anything that came out of the Gothic period can truly be considered "new", it would be the use of flying buttresses and stained glass windows. But even still, as I stated before, while the medium may be new, the use of narratives portrayed on stained glass windows is not new. In prior times, the narratives were either carved into, or painted on walls. The use of pointed arches began in the Romanesque period, but probably had their origin in more eastern regions. Overall, the combination of new features in architecture with older styles, gives the architecture of Gothic cathedrals their new, unique appearance.

Essay 5c: Part Two 

Time Travel

Question: How did the art and iconography of the Scythians, belonging to the eastern European steppe region, influence the art and iconography of the Celts, situated in the central and western regions of Europe?

Part One
Summary: My experience with this essay was one of great satisfaction. While writing the first essay pertaining to the Celts, Vikings, and Scythians, I believed the Celts and Scythians were only connected indirectly through the Greeks. After mind racking research, I finally discovered that the two cultures most certainly had a direct connection. With Scythian tribes migrating as far north into Europe as western Poland, and early Celtic cultures existing in Germany at the same time, it is more than probable that the two cultures interacted. 

Reason: The reason why I asked this question was primarily out of person curiosity. After writing the first essay, I had continued reading a book I own about the Celts. As I was reading, I began to realize that there may actually be a connection with them and the Scythians. Thus, I set off determined to discovered if a connection did actually exist. 

Purpose: The purpose of this question was to discover how a culture residing in Eurasia could have been connected to another culture residing in western Europe in order to understand how influences in art and iconography could travel such long distances in a world barren of modern technology.

Direction: In the research for this essay, I focused more on the history of the Celtic and Scythian cultures than I did to the art of each culture. After creating my own map which displayed where each culture extended to in Europe, and at what time period, I then began searching for any early Celtic art that had a Scythian appearance. I then added these items to my map to be able to see exactly where they were found. In doing so, I made great discoveries that I will not mention here because they are in the essay.

Impressions: I had one particular moment in my research of this essay that caused me to jump from my seat and proclaim "Oh my god! I found something important!". This moment took place when I found a piece of Scythian art that had an almost identical design to a piece of Celtic art that I had found early on; both are displayed in the essay. While I had found Celtic art that had Scythian-style details, nothing had had such a close resemblance as these two pieces. 

Part Two     

Answer: In my last essay, which discusses the connections between the Vikings, Celts, and Scythians, I focused primarily on the Vikings and the Celts, stating that there may have been an indirect connection, via the Greeks, between the Celts and the Scythians. After further research, I have found that there is no doubt a serious connection between the Celts and the Scythians, but not through the Greeks. While both cultures traded with the Greeks, there are influences that appear in both cultures art that are primarily Greek. For the Celts, these Greek influence were obtain through settlement in the Po Valley down to Greece, and into Turkey. Since the Greeks had various settlements in the Black Sea region, this is were they influenced Scythian art. The major connections between the Celts and the Scythians takes place north of, and along, the Danube River in areas such as modern day Germany, Poland, Austria, Hungary, and other countries throughout northern Europe.

Kelermes mirror. gold. 6th C. BC.

It is thought the culture of the Scythians originated in the Lower Volga region of Russia, or in Central Asia. The exact origins are unknown. However, "In the seventh and sixth centuries [B.C.] Scythian culture spread northwards into the forest steppe and westwards into the eastern foothills of the Carpathians...extending southwards from there to the Danube delta" (Europe Between the Oceans. Cunliffe, Barry. Yale University Press. 2008. p. 304). The art of this region is unique to the Scythians, but has many Greek influences. For instance, the Kelermes mirror is "entirely Greek in concept and decoration except that the animals attending the Mistress of the Animals included beasts stylized in an entirely Scythian manner" (Europe Between the Oceans. p. 306).

Scythian pectoral. Gold. 4th Century B.C.

These beasts that are portrayed are one of the trademarks of Scythian art. Almost every piece of Scytian art contains a variety of griffins, horses, stags, and panthers. One of the most common themes when more than one animal is portrayed, is the use of a griffin attacking a stag or horse, which can be seen on the Scythian gold pectoral at right. This animal style is important because it is what finds a way into later Celtic culture, which is forming within the Atlantic coastal and central regions of Europe in the 7th and 6th Centuries B.C.; but I'll get back to that.

While the Scythian groups that resided around the northern parts of the Black Sea were influenced by Greek culture, other groups, located further north and away from the Greeks and the central Scythian world, began to move westward. These groups "moved into the Carpathian Basin in the late seventh or early sixth centuries BC and settled in two separate areas, Transylvania (central Romania) and Alfold (north eastern Hungary and south-western Slovakia)" (Europe Between the Oceans. p. 306). This movement placed the Scythians closer to people of the Hallstatt culture existing in southern modern day Germany. The people of the Hallstatt culture are considered to be part of the Celtic culture. In some writings, they are not considered to be Celtic, while in others they are, but either way, the Hallstatt culture develops into the Celtic culture.

The Scythians who migrated into the Alfold region of Hungary has come to be known as the Vekerzug culture, which is dated to the sixth and fifth centuries BC. To the west of their location "the river Danube formed a very definite boundary with the Hallstatt cultures of central and western Europe, but Scythian-style material is found extending both to the west and to the north, with concentrations in the Upper Sava valley (Slovenia) and in Silesia (south-west Poland)" (Europe Between the Oceans. p. 308). In the south-west of Poland, a handful of Scythian-style artifacts have been found. Items found within one area, Vettersfelde, in western Poland, consist of primarily warrior gear and some golden jewelry. One of these items in particular caught my attention.

Trimming repousse. Gold. early 5th C. BC - embossed disk. gilded silver. BC

The object in gold pictured at right is piece that was discovered with the Vettersfelde treasure, is considered to be Scythian, and dates to the beginning of the fifth century BC. The object to the right of this piece is what is considered to be a Celtic silver gilded, embossed disk. This item was found further to the west in the northern Netherlands. Unfortunately, I was unable to find an actual date for this item, but it is dated to the BC period. When I had originally found this piece of Celtic metalwork, I immediately thought that it appears to be incredibly Scythian influenced due to the use of fighting beasts. When I then found the gold piece from the Vettersfelde treasure, I was absolutely amazed by the overwhelming similarities between it and the Celtic disk. The use of beasts, which appear to be either lions or panthers, or maybe even dogs, around the outside edge of the circles is almost identical in both pieces. The major difference is that the Celtic piece has one more beast around the edge, and also includes a human fighting a beast in the center. Even with the Celtic additions, it is more than easy to see that the Scythians had a major influence on Celtic art.

                       1. Schwarzenbach Bowl. gold covered. 420 BC    2. Rodenbach arm ring. gold, bronze. 4-5th C. BC                         3. Wieskirchen plaque. gold, iron. late 5th C. BC.  4. Wieskirchen belt plaque. bronze, coral. late 5th C. BC.

 In my research, I found that the Celtic artifacts that most closely resemble those of the Scythians have been found to the north of the Danube River, primarily in areas within modern day Germany. Some examples are included above; all of which have been found within the borders of Germany. The Schwarzenback bowl has an incredibly Greek appearance, and is done in the same manner as the Kelermes mirror. This piece could be influenced by the Scythians who probably had Greek objects with them when they migrated west. Or it could be influenced directly by the Greeks, who traded with the Celts. The other three objects, an arm ring and two types of plaques, have aspects that can be related to the Scythians. All three contain images of human heads that have similar characteristic; the shape of the eyes and eyebrows. The arm ring and the belt plaque both contain beasts that have a Scythian appearance. The beasts in the belt plaque are griffins, which appear frequently in Scythian artwork. All four objects are dated within the 5th Century BC, which closely coincides with the arrival of Scythian cultures in Poland and Slovakia.

      Disk from Auvers-sur-Oise. gold & bronze. early 4th C. BC

All four items are placed within the La Tene period of art work that took place after the 6th Century BC and is one of the richest periods in Celtic art. The La Tene period is what replaces the Hallstatt culture of the 7th-6th Centuries BC, and therefore the influences made by the Scythians on the Hallstatt people would have worked its way down into the La Tene culture. Within the same time frame as the La Tene culture, or style, Celtic art that was developing closer to the Atlantic contained the aspects of an early  insular appearance. There are a lot of spirals, swirling figures, and vines in the art of this period.The disk to the right, found in northern France, contains the swirling figures and spirals. It also has an appearance similar to that of the Schwarzenbach bowl, which could come from either Greek or Scythian influences. This "vegetal style" takes hold in the western portions of the Celtic world.

Eventually, the rise and expansion of the Roman Empire gradually pushed the Celtic culture into the regions of the British Isles. Here the culture would stay strong maintaining a primary vegetal appearance until the arrival of the Angles and the Saxons in the 5th Century AD. These groups would bring Germanic influences into the Celtic culture of the British Isles. These influences include various forms of beasts. It would not be surprising if the use of beasts by the Angles and Saxons have their origins in the intermingling of the Scythian and Hallstatt cultures. Both tribes were situated in the north of Germany. Also, these two cultures were located just south of the Norse cultures. This is important because styles characteristic of the Scythians, the Norse, and the Celts, exist in the Anglo-Saxon art the takes over, and becomes, the Celtic art of the British Isles after the Anglo-Saxon invasions. Aspects of all of the cultures would eventually be incorporated by the Celtic monks working on illuminated manuscripts in the 9th Century AD and onward.

Essay 5c

Time Travel

Question: Find examples and describe the similarities and connections between Scythian, Celtic and Viking iconography. Can you name one other example between three other distinct cultures, time periods and geographic locations? Describe what other discoveries you made in your research.

Part One
Summary: What I gained from the research for this question is a new knowledge that the styles and iconography of Celtic and Viking also existed in the further region of Eurasia, at an earlier time. I had always known of the similarities between the Celts and Vikings, since both cultures are very well known in general. However, I never knew that there were other connections with cultures such as the Scythians. I believed the styles of the Celts and Vikings were common only to the Northwestern regions of Europe. 

Reason: I believe the reason this question was asked was to show how cultures influence each other even when there is a large divide between them.

Purpose: Here the purpose is one with the reason. Each question I have done so far has led to knowledge of connections between different cultures. Understanding these connections helps in understanding the development of art. 

Direction: The direction I took for this question was different than that of the previous questions I answered. Instead of focusing on what books and other sources had to say about the art I was studying, I focused on learning the histories and beliefs of each culture. This in turn helped me to view the art from my own viewpoint without only seeing exactly what sources say is there, thus allowing me to focus on my own opinion. 

Impression: My aha moment in the study of this question came when I found an image of a Scythian bridle ornament that has a goddess and serpents on it. This stuck out the most to me because serpents are used continuously in Celtic and Viking iconography.  


 Part Two

Answer: The iconography of the Scythians, Celts, and Vikings have various similarities. The fact that there are similarities between the Celts and the Vikings comes as no surprise since both cultures were located in the Northwestern regions of Europe. While the two cultures had different beliefs, and therefore different iconography, they were both influenced by the same cultures. The culture of the Celts originated "around 800 B.C. on mainland Europe in an area associated with the Danube Basin" (Who Were the Celts?. Kevin Duffy. Fall River Press: 1999. p. XIII). The Celtic culture spread throughout most of Europe and took its strongest hold in the British Isles, particularly in Ireland where it exists to this day. By the 5th century C.E., "a fusion of Celtic, Roman, Germanic, and Norse cultures" (Art History. Marilyn Stokstad/Michael W. Cothren, Fourth Edition/volume 1, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc., p. 427) existed throughout Europe.

Antlered Figure Gundestrup Cauldron. Silver. 130-1 B.C.

The common styles used within Celtic art are zoomorphic, interlacing, and spiral usage. In ancient Celtic art, the zoomorphic style is most common. This is apparent on a plate of the Gundestrup Cauldron which depicts the horned god Cernunnos surrounded by various animals. The god is depicted with horns and holding a serpent in one hand, both symbols of fertility. Also visible are floral patterns that are surrounded by a rope-like pattern. Perhaps this is the early stages of interlacing which became common later on.

Closeup of page from Lindisfarne Gospels. Ink and tempura on vellum. 715-720 C.E.

The use of interlace and spirals was common in medieval Celtic art and is still used today. Interlace consists "of interweaving ribbons laid out in a balanced and often dazzlingly intricate design" (http://www.ancient-celts.com/AncientVsMedievalArt6.html). Perfect examples of this are in the medieval manuscripts and high crosses of Ireland. In images from the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells, "hybrid animal forms tangle in acrobatic interlacing, disciplined by strict symmetry and sharp framing" (Art History.  p. 430). This style present in medieval Celtic iconography is so detailed, intricate, and extravagant, that one could probably spend hours viewing it and still not see every detail. Visible in this image are various ropes that create intricate knots and all seem to be connected, with no beginning or end. Mixed in with the ropes and knots are also serpents that create their own knots that mingle with the interlaced rope. Also visible here are various forms of spirals, some of which are created by the individual circular patterns dominated by a solid purple background, and others that intertwine similar to the ropes and serpents, and fill in any negative space. The filling in of negative space in such a manner is known as horror vacui, fear of negative spaces, and is present not only in Celtic art, but also in Viking and some Scythian art. 

Bow of Oseberg Ship. Wood. c. 815-820 CE

"In the eighth century, seafaring bands of Norse seamen known as Vikings descended on the rest of Europe" (Art History. p. 435). As stated earlier, there was already a Norse influence existing throughout Europe by the 5th century, and so the movements of the Vikings spread this influence further while simultaneously being influenced by the Celts. Both the zoomorphic/animal style and interlace styles used by the Celts are visible on the bow of the Oseberg Ship. Here "the rising prow spirals into a tiny serpent's head, and bands of interlaced animals carved in low relief run along the edges" (Art History. p. 435). The interlacing of these animals are extremely similar to the interlacing used by the Celts. The primary difference is that the Vikings use more animal figures for the interlace than ropes. However, some of these animals appear to be serpents which is a commonality with the Celtic interlacing. Further use of serpents is used in the top of the bow as well as in the stern with the bow spiraling into a serpents head, and the stern similarly spiraling into a serpents tail, thus making the ship one large serpent. Such ships were buried with Vikings because they "symbolised the journeys made by their passengers beyond death in this world to life in another" (The Norse Myths. Kevin Crossley-Holland. Pantheon Books:1980. p. 197).

Scythian Shield Emblem. Gold. c. 7th C. BCE

The Scythians are thought to have originated around the 8th-7th centuries BCE, which is close to the origin of the Celts. However, the Scythians were situated more southeast than the Celts in the Iranian lands. Little is known of Scythians, but what is known comes from the writings of the Greek Herodotus and also from artifacts found at Scythian burial sites. Most of these artifacts are shield emblems in the shape of animals represented in a zoomorphic fashion somewhat similar to the animals of Celtic and Viking art, however they are not involved in any interlacing. What is similar is the use of curvature in the antlers of the stag shown here. All of the s-like curves that make up the antlers seem to be attached giving the antlers a rope-like appearance. The use of these animals as shield emblems is thought to have a religious purpose in that they "were considered to have magical power and to provide protection against evil or disaster" (http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/03/hm3_2_16.html). This idea is based off the beliefs of other ancient nomadic tribes and is logical to apply to the Scythians because of their use as shield emblems. Perhaps they were used on the shields to ward off evil and disaster in battle.

Bridle Ornament. Gold. c. 4th C. BCE

Because there is little known about the Scythians, this means that our knowledge of their religious beliefs is also limited. However, mythical figures do appear in some of their art, such as what appears to be a goddess on the bridle ornament to the right. The goddess is depicted as being half serpent, which I find interesting. I find this interesting because out of all three cultures, the serpent appears the most. There is a serpent being held by Cernunnos on a plate of the Gundestrup cauldron, serpents appear in Celtic and Viking interlace, serpents (or serpent-like dragons) are used on the prows of Viking ships, and a half serpent goddess appears in Scythian art.

I believe this use of serpents and other zoomorphic figures in all three cultures shows any connections between the cultures. The Celts are thought to have contact with the Greeks, and since an ancient Greek man wrote the histories of the Scythians, we know that the Scythians were in contact with the Greeks. Perhaps the Scythians and the Celts influenced each other indirectly through their connections with the Greeks. The biggest mystery would be who influenced who the most. Did the Scythian use of the animal style influence the Celtic use of the zoomorphic style, or is it the other way around? Either way, a possible connection between these two cultures lays the groundwork for a connection between the Scythians and the Vikings through the Celts. Since the Celts originated in the same location as other cultures that influenced the Vikings, then the influence of the Scythians would have existed already, and thus had an influence on the Vikings. Since there does not appear to be any wide use of serpents in ancient Celtic iconography, I believe that the use of serpents in medieval Celtic iconography by the 5th century may be due to influences from the Scythians.

Or, perhaps there is no connection at all between the Celts and Vikings, and the Scythians. It could just be coincidence that two cultures from one part of Europe and one culture in the Iranian lands are creating art that has similar characteristics. This wouldn't be too surprising to me since pyramids exist in various locations around the world in countries that have no connection with each other such as the Egyptians and the Mayans and Aztecs. Oddly enough, some Mayan religious figures bare an odd resemblance to the gods of the Egyptians even though an ocean separates the two. Maybe the human mind progresses in the same manner and creates the same style of beliefs regardless of location, or maybe there was connections between the two sides of the world that we just don't know about yet.

Essay 4a

Yin and Yang

The Question: What are the similarities and differences between the art of the Western Roman Empire and that of the Byzantine Empire; how did these similarities and differences affect the art of Western Europe and set the stage for the Gothic Period?

Part One
Summary: What I gained from researching this question is a much better understand of Roman art. I had never realized that there were so many fluctuations of style within the empire and had always just though of it as being Roman while looking like it is Greek. In combination with answering this question and the previous question I chose on the first essay, I now have an even better understanding of how events that take place affect the art of a period and how those affects trickle through time and influence the art of later periods.

Reason: I believe the reason this question was asked was to examine how one period of art can be influenced by the art of an earlier period. Also to examine how even though two empires are essentially the same empire, they are both incredibly different, individual empires as well.

Purpose: The purpose of this question was to show how the art of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire contain similarities, but are also different to a point that makes them two separate forms of art.

Direction: The direction I took with this question is one that will cause me to take a closer look at art and, more importantly, art of preceding periods. By knowing the history and influences of one period of art, I can understand more clearly how and why art develops the way it does.

Impressions: Going back to the summary portion, the discovery of such a variety of art styles within the Roman Empire left the biggest impression on me. I now understand that while the Romans had a love for Greek art, and often copied it, they still strove to create their own styles that would differentiate them from the Greeks.

Part Two
Answer: The Eastern Roman Empire, based out of Rome, grew and eventually dominated most of Europe - primarily along the Mediterranean - and Northern Africa, until the Third and Fourth Centuries CE, when the Empire went through various stages of turmoil. There was a series of "Soldier Emperors", who gained control over the Empire primarily by assassinating the current Emperor and taking their place. This was finally resolved with the rise of the Tetrach system, formed by Diocletian, in which the Empire was split into four sections, each with a different ruler, but all of which ruled the Empire together. With the rise of Constantine as sole Emperor after he defeated Licinius in 337 CE, the Empire's capitol was moved to Byzantium, which Constantine renamed Constantinople. During the period of the Byzantine Empire, many territories that were lost to Rome were regained, and the Empire became mostly Christian - Constantine declared Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire - and lasted into the Fifteenth Century.

Within the two Empires, there were various forms of art that continuously changed, usually depending on the tastes of the Emperor. As Rosemarie Trentinella states in an article for The Metropolitan Museum of Art, "Each stage of Roman portraiture can be described as alternately 'veristic' or 'classicizing', as each imperial dynasty sought to emphasize certain aspects of representation..." (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ropo2/hd_ropo2.htm). While the art of the Byzantine Empire did not quite fluctuate in such a manner, it did have variations that used both Greek and Roman methods. Even though the two Empires followed similar styles and methods, there were still various differences - alongside similarities - that characterized the art of each Empire.

The Roman Empire begins with the rise of the Republic in 509 BCE. During the Republic, most of the Roman art was based on the art of the Greek world. "The Romans used Greek designs and Greek orders in their architecture, imported Greek art, and employed Greek artists" (Art History, Marilyn Stokstad/Michael W. Cothren, Fourth Edition/volume 1, 2011 Pearson Education, Inc., p. 169). However, unlike the Greek style of general, smooth, eternally young faces, Romans began to focus on the details of a persons face, and in particular, the aged aspects as well as creating the likenesses of individuals. This can be seen on page 171 of Art History in figure 6-13 Portrait Head of an Elder. In this image the signs of aging are apparent in the wrinkles and folds of the cheeks and chin, the sagging under the eyes, the seemingly permanent wrinkles of the forehead, and the loose skin of the neck. This style, known as verism, was important to the Romans of this period who saw the signs of aging as also being symbols of wisdom and experience. Also during the Republic, and further on in Roman art, was the building of temples which generally followed the same pattern as Greek temples. Columns were used around the main temple area, but where the Greeks fully surrounded their temples with columns, the Romans followed a more Etruscan style of having the columns placed in the front, creating one primary entrance. Some of these columns were engaged, or attached to the walls that surrounded the cella.

The Early Empire, beginning in 27 BCE, brought changes that returned the Roman art style back to one more similar to Greek Classicism. This era began with the Augustan age in which artists created "a new Roman form of idealism that, though still grounded in the appearance of the everyday world, is heavily influenced by a revival of Greek Classical ideas" (Art History. p. 174). This style is apparent in the statue known as Augustus of Primaporta, shown on page 175 of Art History. While details are still evident, and the face is easily distinguishable as Emperor Augustus, he is portrayed in the Greek style of youth. Even with age, portraits of Augustus portray him as being young. With the rise of the Flavians in 69 BCE, Roman art returned to the concepts of verism, and signs of age were once again important.

Wall painting also became a popular form of art during the Early Empire. Most wall paintings from this period portray scenes that revolve around Greek mythology and "mystery religions". Scenes were typically backed by solid colors of red or white, which then gave the scene a framed appearance. Giving character and life to these paintings was also the use of linear perspective which was used for painting architecture. A wall painting in the "Ixion Room" of the House of Vettii (Art History, p. 182) displays the beautiful use of perspective with architecture and parts of the walls seem to be windows or doorways into surrounding rooms. In still lifes and portraits, artists employed the use of light and shadow to give objects the appearance of depth, thus rendering the paintings more life-like. Following a similar style of wall painting was the use of mosaics, in which artists use various pieces of pebbles, or small pieces of colored stone or marble. Like wall paintings, artists used light and shadow to create lifelike figures.

Also important to mention is some of the developments in architecture during the Early Empire. Romans began building on a much larger scale than earlier times and built immaculate structures such as the Colloseum, the Basilica Ulpia, and the Pantheon.  The Basilica Ulpia set the general style for basilicas of later periods with the use of a nave and apses. While the main area of the basilica is rectangular and surrounded by columns, following the style of temples, other areas were rounded out into a semi-circular form. Contrasting to the Basilica Ulpia is the Pantheon which is mostly circular - aside from the portico - and was built with a domed roof that contains an open circle in the center called the oculus. This domed roof causes visitors attention to be drawn to the open oculus, and thus to the cosmos.  

The Late Empire of the third and fourth centuries CE brought various changes to Roman art. After a series of "soldier emperors" who failed to keep order in the empire, was the rise of Diocletian in 284 CE. Between 286 and 293 CE he developed a form of government known as a tetrarchy in which four people, two with the title of Augustus and two with the title of Caesar, ruled four quadrants of the empire. "Diocletian's political restructuring is paralleled by the introduction of a radically new, hard style of geometricized abstraction, especially notable in portraits of the tetrarchs themselves" (Art History. p. 205). This form of art can be characterized by a lack of individual likeness. The sculpture The Tetrarchs, shown on page 207 of Art History gives an example of this new art form. Although only two Tetrarchs are visible, the sculpture actually contains all four. The faces of each are similar in appearance, aside from beards on the Augusti. The sculpture contains various geometric shapes and although there is movement portrayed, there is only a minor sense of realism. This plain and geometric form was also portrayed in architecture at this time. A palace commissioned by Constantius Chlorus and his son Constantine was built in a highly simplistic manner. The building is rectangular with a semi-circular apse on one end and has multiple windows, but has little to no decorative aspects.

At the beginning of the Fourth Century, the Tetrach system began to fall apart when its creator, Diocletian, abdicated and forced the other Augustus, Maximian to do the same. After this, small battles broke out between the younger Caesar's as they fought to gain control. Constantine was victorious over Maxentius and ruled for a short period with Licinius. Eventually he also defeated Licinius, who had become his rival, and assumed sole rule of the empire. At this time, he declared the new capitol of the Roman Empire to be the port city of Byzantium, which he then renamed Constantinople in honor of himself. Thus begins the rule of the Byzantine Empire.

The art of the Byzantine Empire can be characterized by the development of the Christian religion. Various churches were built throughout the empire which contained religiously themed frescos and mosaics. Most popular was the building of domed churches which seem to have built with the Basilica Ulpia and the Pantheon as inspiration. The Church of Hagia Sophia portrays this incredibly well. Built up on a mostly square foundation is one large dome flanked by two half domes and various apses. Unlike the Pantheon, the base of the large dome contains forty windows, allowing an incredible amount of light to enter into the naos (the nave and sanctuary). Also following the style of the domed church is the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. "The design of San Vitale is basically a central-domed octagon surrounded by eight radiating exedrae (wall niches), surrounded in turn by an ambulatory and gallery, all covered by vaults" (Art History. p. 237).

Decorating the walls of such churches are an incredible variety of mosaics and frescos. These mosaics and frescos are of religious scenes, such as stories from the Bible. Some mosaics, such as the Empress Theodora and Her Attendants located in the Church of San Vitale, employ the use of Classical styles similar to those used in Roman frescos; an open doorway and use of shadow. However, these are not used to the same extent as the Romans did so that the focal point of the people is not overcast by the illusion of three-dimensional space. Such scenes "are both flattened and three-dimensional, abstract and representational, patterned and individualized" (Art History. p. 241). The individualization of characters is not like that of individual characters of most Roman art. Instead of characters having a likeness to the real person, they are often individualized by their clothes, location within the scene, or by their names which were located underneath or close by them.  

Such scenes were not only on the walls of churches, but also appeared within manuscripts. Religious scenes typically accompanied writing on an individual page, but occasionally took up entire pages, such as in the Paris Psalter. One example within the Psalter is a piece called David the Psalmist (Art History. p 253). The scene fills up the majority of one page, is framed with a geometric pattern, and employs many Roman art styles. At the top of the scene, situated in the background, is a building that was painted with the concept of perspective in mind, and seems to retreat back into the scene. The setting of the scene within an outdoor landscape is also reminiscent of Greek and Roman art, but was not commonly used in this period.

Also created during the Byzantine Empire were icons, which at the time were typically portraits of Christ, Mary, or the Saints that were painted on wooden panels. These were used as a sort of contemplational focus while people were praying. Unfortunately, the use of these icons sparked a large scale debate that focused on the proper use of icons in worship. Many saw it as another form idol worship which is forbidden in the Christain religion. During this debate, "Emperor Leo III launched a campaign of iconoclasm ('image breaking'), banning the use of icons in Christain worship and ordering the destruction of devotional pictures" (Art History. p. 245). Fortunately, this did not last and after 843 CE, the use of icons returned. This would not be the last time such a debate would rise up. Throughout history, it happened in various places and much art would be destroyed. For instance, another wave of iconoclasm swept through parts of Europe during the Protestant Reformation and many wonderful works of art were destroyed.

Although there are many ways in which the art of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire are similar - use of Classical scenes, domed churches that also followed the style of basilicas, and use of shadow and perspective - they are also quite different and easily distinguishable. The first and foremost difference is the scenes depicted in the art. While Roman art displays mystical scenes taken primarily from Greek mythology, Byzantine scenes are focused around the Christain religion with an occasional inclusion of mythology. While Roman portraiture did cycle through phases of verism and classicism, the artist almost always portrayed faces as being an incredibly well likeness to who they were sculpting or painting. On the other hand, the faces of people in Byzantine art all follow a similar pattern and are not distinguishable from one another unless other details are focused on.

However, the art and architecture of both empires played a role in setting the stage for the Gothic period. Prior to the Gothic period was the Romanesque period, which is so called because of a revival of Roman architecture such as the domed roof. Leading into the Gothic period, architects wanted to create even taller churches and cathedrals and so employed the use of the pointed arch, which of course is not similar to Roman or Byzantine art. What is similar though is the effect the architecture of such buildings had on the human eye. Like the Pantheon, the large ceilings pull a viewers focus upwards towards the heavens. Where the Byzantines used frescos or mosaics on the domed ceilings, artists of the Gothic period used stained glass. What is interesting here is that use of a rose-window was common in Gothic times. The rose-window is typically a circular flower shape, and similar to the scenes of the Byzantine domes, the stained glass in the window would have either God, Christ, or Mary in the center surrounded by Biblical scenes. Also, the stained glass windows that would surround Gothic cathedrals would portray Biblical scenes in the same manner as the mosaics and frescos that covered the walls and roofs of Byzantine churches.